STUDY GUIDE FOR FINAL EXAM

CHAPTER 13 – RENAISSANCE (1350-1650)  
What period preceded the renaissance, and what caused it? 

What does the word renaissance mean? 
Where did the Renaissance begin?  
The Renaissance was a renewed interest in what ancient culture? 
Who were the three greatest artists from the Renaissance?

What were the interests of the Renaissance?

What is the geocentric model of the solar system, and who advanced it?

What is the heliocentric model of the solar system, and who advanced it?

Why was the geocentric model rejected?

During the Renaissance human anatomy was first studied by: 

Know the most important facts about Galileo? 

CHAPTER 14 - BACON AND HOBBES
Name the most important facts about Francis Bacon?

Name the most important facts about Thomas Hobbes?

For Hobbes, all our legitimate thoughts originate in:  
According to Hobbes, what distinguishes humans from other animals?  

How does Hobbes define desire and aversion?  

CHAPTER 15 – DESCARTES
What was Descartes' method?

How did Descartes define certainty?

What statement did Descartes believe was certain?

What arguments did Descartes use to doubt his beliefs?

How did Descartes attempt to get outside of consciousness?

How does Descartes' attempt to prove that perceptions are accurate representations of reality?

CHAPTER 20 – GEORGE BERKELEY

For Berkeley, if a table is not being perceived, what properties would it have?

For Berkeley, if a tree falls in a forest, and nobody is there to hear it, does it make a sound?

Name the most important facts about George Berkeley?

CHAPTER 21 - DAVID HUME
What was Hume's starting point and method? 
All simple ideas are copies of simple impressions. If a simple idea is not copied from a simple impression it’s meaningless, and should be rejected. (Empiricist Criteria of Meaning)

What ideas did Hume think are meaningless?

According to Hume, what are impressions?
Impressions of Sensation are: things you see, hear, taste, touch, and smell. Do we know their causes? No
Impressions of Reflection are: emotions & passions. Do we know their cause? Yes - sensations and ideas.
According to David Hume, what are ideas?
Memories and Imaginings 

What did Hume say about our concept of cause and effect?

CHAPTER 22 - IMMANUEL KANT
TYPES OF PROPOSITIONS:
A PRIORI -  A proposition or statement whose justification doesn't rely on experience. (Universal / Necessary)
Examples: All bachelors are unmarried. 1 + 1 = 2
A POSTERIORI - A proposition whose justification relies on experience. (Contingent Truth) 
Examples: Most philosophy students don’t buy books. Fire is hot. Water is wet.

ANALYTIC - A proposition whose predicate is contained in its subject. (Necessary)
The conclusion is contained in the subject. They are true by definition, and all known a priori.
Examples: All bachelors are unmarried. All triangles have three sides. Every event or effect has a cause? 
SYNTHETIC - A proposition whose predicate is not in its subject; the conclusion is not in the subject.
Examples: Some men are tall.  Some birds are red.  All bodies are heavy. This rose is red.

ANALYTIC A PRIORI - Known by definition and reason alone. (Uncontroversial, Universal, and Necessary)
Known by extracting the conclusion from the subject. 
Example: Physical objects are extended. Every effect has a cause.

SYNTHETIC A PRIORI -True by the mind's structure. (Universal and Necessary)
Not known by experience or logic; the conclusion (predicate) adds to the subject?
Example: 1 + 4 = 5  |  Every event has a cause. A straight line is the shortest distance between two points.

ANALYTIC A POSTERIORI - Self-Contradictory (Not based, and based,  on experience.)
SYNTHETIC A POSTERIORI - Known by experience.
Example: Physical objects have weight. Physical objects fall at 32' per second.
Did Kant believe we can know that space, time, cause and effect are true of external reality?

For Kant the only thing that is good in itself is:

According to Kant, when is your will good:

Kant's philosophy was a reaction to what philosopher. 

What is a hypothetical Imperative?

What is the categorical Imperative?
"Act only on that maxim through which you can ... will that it should become a universal law?"
"Act so that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in that of another, always as an end and never as a means only."
 
According to Kant, an act has moral worth only if:

CHAPTER 28 - UTILITARIANISM / BENTHAM AND MILL
Who improved upon the Bentham’s utilitarian theory of ethics?

According to Mill and Bentham, an action has moral worth only if:

Know the most important facts about Mill and utilitarianism.

IMPORTANT TERMS
DEONTOLOGICAL ETHICS - From the Greek deon meaning obligation or duty. A moral act is done from duty, and ignores the consequences.

DETERMINISM – There is no Free will because every event has a cause.
EGOISM - Psychological egoism is the belief that we always pursue our own self interest. Ethical egoism is the claim that we ought to pursue our own self interest. Note that neither imply that our self interest is pleasure.

EMPIRICISM – All knowledge comes from experience. You can’t use reason to go beyond experience
The mind, prior to sense experience, is like a blank slate.
What philosophers were empiricists?

HEDONISM: Pleasure is the only intrinsic good. Psychological hedonism is the belief that we always pursue pleasure, and avoid pain. Ethical hedonism is the claim that we ought to pursue pleasure, and avoid pain. 
What philosophers were hedonists?

IDEALISM – Reality is made of minds and their ideas.
What philosopher was an idealist?

PRIMARY QUALITIES – Properties that physical objects have when they are not being perceived.
Examples: extension, shape, location, solidity, motion, rest, and number.

PRINCIPLE OF INDUCTION - The assumption that the laws of nature will be the same in the future.
What philosopher brought this into doubt? David Hume  

RATIONALISM – The belief that reason provides source knowledge, and we can use reason to go beyond experience.
What philosophers were rationalists?

RELATIVIST (moral) – There are no objective universal (moral) truths.

SECONDARY QUALITIES – Properties of objects that produce sensations in observers. They are in the mind only.
Examples: Color, taste, smell, and sound.
Who believed in Primary and Secondary qualities?
Leucippus  / Democritus  /  Galileo  /  John Locke  /  George Berkeley? 
They were first advanced as part of what theory?

SOLIPSISM - We can't know the external world because we only know the contents of our minds.

TELEOLOGICAL ETHICS - From the Greek telos meaning end or purpose. An act is moral because it produced good consequences. The motive is irrelevant. 
What philosophers’ ethics  were teleological?

UTILITARIAN ETHICS - Moral acts produce the greatest amount of pleasure for the greatest amount of people.
What philosophers were utilitarian?